Education and Life Chances in Modern Education Essay Example for Free

Education and Life Chances in Modern Education Essay Public education, it can be argued, shapes society, instils social mores and indoctrinates the impressionable with those philosophies the elites value. This essay will focus upon three main areas intrinsic to the education system. These are the social reproduction of ideas, the life chances created and instilled through education, and the socialisation of the individuals undergoing the educational process. Two main sociological perspectives that are useful when studying the education system are Functionalism and Critical Theory, because they focus on macro issues and social structures more than the interactionist perspective. Functionalists believe that the school system is an agent of social reproduction, which operates to reproduce well integrated, fully functioning members of society (Webb, Schirato and Danaher, 2002: 114). Critical theorists, conversely, hold that education is the most effective mechanism for promoting social change and for giving opportunities to less privileged groups so that they can advance their social standing. However, education usually reproduces existing social divisions, maintaining the relative disadvantage of certain groups (Webb, Schirato and Danaher, 2002: 106). Munro (1994: 108) describes the different approaches by stating that, functionalists tend to see education as synonymous with socialisation, while a conflict theorist is inclined to view education as ideological- that is, reflecting the interests of particular groups. Functionalists hold that the major institution for social reproduction is the education system, whereas, from a critical perspective, teachers, who oversee this reproduction, have been made into administrators of programs that provide manpower capitalisation through planned and directed behavioural changes (Illich, 1973: 327). Illich (1973: 327) comments, from a critical perspective, that teaching and learning remain sacred activities separate and estranged from a fulfilling life. This is because the things being taught do not line up with the necessary knowledge needed for life outside of education, and that learning from programmed information always hides reality behind a screen (Illich, 1973: 324). This means that the knowledge provided is set to a secret agenda. The learning process, which supposedly passes on the values and mores necessary in society to students,  is not, however, meeting these needs effectively. Relevant information, that is, knowledge, which will add skills to the labour market, is becoming less practical and more theoretical, expanding the gap between study and work. Regardless of this, employers and social elites have attempted to use the schools for the reproduction of compliant workers (Davis, 1999: 65). This double standard has been discussed in a best selling song, The Wall by Pink Floyd (1978) in which they stated that the reproduction received through the school system was set to a hidden agenda, and that society would be better off without it. Drucker (1973: 236) equates the influx of educated people to the potential for producing wealth in any given country. By stating this, educational socialisation and the development of educated people is the most important function education can have. He goes on to state that while this may be the case today, throughout history, being uneducated provided the wealth of a given nation, due to the class differences, and that education was for the rich and idle while the work was performed by the illiterate. This all changed with the Industrial Revolution, and the invention of moveable type in the 17th Century (Drucker, 1973: 232). The moveable type meant that education could be performed at a reduced rate, and words became a commodity that was necessary for improving the quality of the labour force. Education is purported to provide the best possible life chances for its graduates, yet in reality, in many ways education diminishes these chances. Heinz (1987: 132) points out that the life chances of graduates are in a state of flux, that when the labour market is depressed and work is difficult to find, then young people will opt for more education as a means of delaying their entry into a tight work force. The school then takes on the function of a warehouse; it is a place to mark time. At the same time school acts as a socio-political instrument for reducing social and political conflict, and this function gains predominance over its main function of educating young people. In many cases the academic credentials earned are unnecessary for working-class jobs (Furlong and Cartmel, 1999: 12), which changes the focus of education, making it oppressive and irrelevant (Davis, 1999: 83). Heinz (1987: 131) states secondary  school-leavers face a worsening outlook when they want to start in working life, and joining a preparatory program is increasingly becoming the only alternative to unemployment. There are a growing number of young people who are finding it harder to find a place, whose prospects on the labour market are poor, being qualified but underemployed, or drifting between unemployment and occasional jobs (Heinz, 1987: 131). This increases social inequalities and the gap between rich and poor. By acting as a warehouse education is not preparing students for life but rather crippling their life chances. The alternative to this are to reassess the curricula and teaching methods, reintegrating skilled workers into vocational education, ensuring that knowledge will be of direct benefit to graduates in obtaining a place within the work force. There are fewer and fewer opportunities becoming available, and school leavers have to undergo more and more relevant vocational training. However, fewer school-leavers are able to go directly into the vocational training they want. Heinz (1987: 130) noted a growing trend 16 years ago that Depending on the region, only between one-third and one-half of these school leavers succeed in getting a training place, and in 1994 Munro (1994: 109) observed that the school-to-work transition had failed which had major ramifications for everyone involved, causing underemployment of school leavers (Munro, 1994: 116). The seriousness of this trend is made even more apparent by the fact that school-leavers are even ready to enter apprenticeships that lead them into dead-end occupations (Heinz, 1987: 129). Drucker (1973: 232) however, states that while this may be so, to be uneducated is an economic liability and is unproductive, even though education is producing an unemployable, overeducated proletariat. (Drucker, 1973: 233) According to Mehan (1973: 240) education is a major socialisation agency, which moulds the individuals self-concepts into a socially accepted format, allowing each individual to be slotted into a specific function (Sargent, 1994: 240). Sargent (1994: 240) points out that in the function of education values are essentially involved and are taught beside worldly knowledge. However, this knowledge interprets the world, but does not necessarily  correspond with any external state (Sargent, 1994: 232). The transmission of knowledge, skills and values, helps to sort and rank individuals, that they might be better placed in the labour market (Munro, 1994: 96). This raises a paradox, however, where education is seen by many as the best possible means of achieving greater equality in society (Sargent, 1994: 233), yet it categorises the graduates into job specifications, personality types and the opportunities granted to each. Sargent (1994: 231) furthers this thought by explaining that the education system is an integral part of determining position and power in our society (Sargent, 1994: 231), and that through education the class structures are compounded, making it more difficult for those in the working classes from advancing in the social hierarchy. The education institution both absorbs and perpetuates the ideology, masquerading as knowledge, which legitimises inequality (Sargent, 1994: 231). Regardless of the inequalities produced, it has become the absolute prerequisite of soci al and economic development in our world to have a highly educated pool of people ready for the labour market (Drucker, 1973: 232). In conclusion, the failure of the education system to reduce social inequality and produce better workers, raises serious doubts as to its effectiveness. Life chances created through education appear to be diminishing, despite the extension of education. The knowledge taught seems to be ineffective in preparing students to cope with life. Functionalists need to reassess the structure of education, as it loses its ability to effectively provide for graduates, becoming dysfunctional in its goals to remove inequality and give a head start to people entering the work force. When looking at the education system, it is necessary to ask if the cost spent on educating people is being effectively used, considering the increasing number of educated poor. The gap between knowledge taught and life experience needs to be bridged, for education to effectively function. If, as it appears, schools are to socialise and reproduce effective and functioning members of society, the curricula has to be ad dressed. Bibliography Davis, Nanette J. (1999). Youth Crisis: Growing up in the High Risk Society. Praeger Publications, Westport Drucker, Peter F. (1973). The Educational Revolution, Social Change: Sources, Patterns, and Consequences (2nd ed) Amitai Etzioni and Eva Etzioni-Halevy (Eds). Basic Books Inc., New York. pp 232 238 Furlong, Andy, and Cartmel, Fred (1997). Young People and Social Change: Individualisation and Risk in Late Modernity. Open University Press, Buckingham Heinz, Walter R. (1987). The Transition from School to Work in Crisis: Coping with Threatening Unemployment, Journal of Adolescent Research (Vol 2). pp 127 141 Illich, Ivan (1973). The Breakdown of Schools: A Problem or a Symptom, Childhood and Socialisation Hans Peter Dreitzel (Ed). Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc., Canada. pp 311 336 Mehan, Hugh (1973). Assessing Childrens School Performance, Childhood and Socialisation Hans Peter Dreitzel (Ed). Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc., Canada. pp 240 264 Munro, Lyle (1994). Education, Society and Change: A Sociological Introduction to Contemporary Australia Brian Furze and Christine Stafford (Eds). Macmillan Education Australia Pty. Ltd., South Melbourne. pp 96 128 Pink Floyd (1978) The Wall, The Wall. Mushroom Records, California. Sargent, Margaret (1994). Education for equality? employment? emancipation?, The New Sociology for Australians. Longman Cheshire Pty. Ltd., Melbourne. pp 231 256 Webb, J., Schirato, T. and Danaher, G. (2002). Bourdieu and Secondary Schools, Understanding Bourdieu pp 105 106 (Reprinted in Sociological Reflections on Everyday Life: GSC 1201 Reader). Allen and Unwin, Sydney. pp 227 238

Inter Generational Theory Of Abuse Psychology Essay

Inter Generational Theory Of Abuse Psychology Essay The inter-generational theory of abuse is a widely accepted notion by professionals and lay people alike. This theory suggests that children exposed to physical, emotional or sexual abuse will subject their offspring to a one of these forms of maltreatment. However, the evidence that undermines this theory is too large to ignore. The evidence that supports this hypothesis refers to abused children becoming juvenile delinquents and the identification of the child with the abuser. Methodological problems, generalizability issues and low validity of the experiments conducted undermined the plausibility and truth in the hypothesis. Another strong factor is the protective factors and predisposition of abused children, who break the cycle of abuse which is more common than thought. In this essay I will discuss the evidence both for and against the hypothesis. Kaufman and Zigler (1987) found that the papers written on studies of inter-generational abuse assert validity without proper evidence because their primary sources of information are unreliable. These studies rely largely on case studies, agency records, clinical interviews, self-report questionnaires. An example of case studies was those mostly done with parents whose children were in hospital for non-accidental injuries (Kaufman Zigler, 1987). Most of these parents reported histories of abuse, but because there were methodological problems (such as limited control measures) the generalizability of the findings is not possible. Agency records also had many of the same limitations. The representative samples, comparison subjects and formal definitions of abuse differed. The omissions in agency records were rarely recorded. Clinical interviews are valuable for generating hypotheses about inter-generational theory but they lacked comparison groups and definitions were far from legal criteria (Kaufman Zigler, 1987). Self-report questionnaires lacked the exploration of the statistical relationships among determinants of abuse (Kaufman Zigler, 1987). Egeland Jacobvitzs observed that the history of abuse could not be separated from influence of poverty, stress and social isolation on parenting behavior. They also noted that the broader the definition is, the greater the apparent link becomes in the inter-generational hypothesis thus make the validity of the collected data low (Kaufman Zigler, 1987). According to Langeland and Dijkstra (1995) the variations of definitions of abuse cause considerable variation of the rates of transmission. They concur that due to bad methodologies making generalizations from the information is problematic. They also highlight the need to study both mothers and fathers (because they have clinical and theoretical relevance), which isnt always the case. Langeland and Dijkstra (1995) show how many studies only examine one child (e.g. Goodwin et al., 1981; Main Goldwyn, 1984; Altemeier et al., 1986; Egeland et al., 1988; Pianta et al., 1989; Burkett, 1991; Boyer Fine, 1992; Caliso Milner, 1992; Herzog et al. 1992; as cited in Langeland and Dijkstra; 1995) and suggest researchers need to look at wider family context (that is brothers, father, grandparents, aunts and cousins). Widom (1989) highlights that the methodological problems play a role in the misrepresentation and overestimation of the actual statistics related to the inter-generational theory. In Widoms review of the literature, she also emphasizes the over dependence on self-report, inadequate documenting of childhood abuse, and the infrequent use of control groups. According to Widom researchers should make a clearer distinction between abused and neglected children because the differences in consequences are significant the information collected overlaps and distorts the results. Widom thus suggests the need for better rating scales for studies, and the need for a greater methodological awareness and refinement. Protective Factors and Predispositions Kaufman and Zigler (1987) observed that some parents (with a history of abuse) became abusive parents whereas other did not. Hunter and Kilstrom (as cited in Kaufman Zigler, 1987) attributed this to the individuals having: extensive social support (e.g. therapy); fewer undecided feelings about being pregnant, they were openly angry about the abuse they endured, and their babies were healthier. Another study by Egeland and Jacobvitz (as cited in Kaufman Zigler, 1987) found mediating factors to be that one parent/foster parent was loving and caring towards the abused child, the abused had an emotionally supportive spouse, they also had fewer current stressful life events and they had a greater awareness of history of abuse and had come to terms with it. This study provides information on the interrelationships (etiology of abuse and other influences) of the many determinants of a parents behavior. Langeland and Dijkstra (1995) also found that many abused children manage to break the cycle of inter-generational abuse. They emphasize the factors that protect/buffer the transmission. Belsky (1980, as cited in Langeland and Dijkstra, 1995) says there are multiple factors at work that cause abuse such as: the individual (personality of parents); familial (the home/family environment e.g. marital relationship); community (formal informal social structures e.g. neighborhood and other family); cultural (societal expectations and attitudes). However, Belsky (1980, as cited in Langeland and Dijkstra) says the interaction of risk and protective factors are important because they effect likelihood of transmission of abuse between generations. Garbarino Gilliam (1980, as cited in Widom, 1989) reiterates that other life events or the predisposition of the child (e.g. natural abilities, physiological predispositions, and social supports) will protect them from the effects of abuse. Deliquency and Identification Kaufman and Zigler (1987) commented on the many other factors that contribute to abuse. Children may find themselves in similar social or relationship conditions (or have long lasting effects of child abuse) that led their parents to be abusive to them as children and cope in the same way. Quinton and Rutter (1988) reiterate that abuse occurs for many reasons namely: substantial social and environmental hardships and a constellation of psycho-social difficulties. It is noted that children may have the same or similar situations as their parents and cycle continues because of the same outside influences. They found that abuse can lead to: personality disorders, alcoholism, and criminality all of which are associated with abuse. Sir Keith Joseph (1972, as cited in Quinton and Rutter, 1988) said poor parenting is a central mechanism for encouraging inter-generational transmission of family problems (that is children learn from their parents). Men that were imprisoned for violence against children were found to have come from large families where abuse was common (Gibbens Walker, 1956; Scott, 1973, as cited in Quinton and Rutter, 1988) and women accused with child-battering were associated with unhappy, loveless and traumatic childhoods (Lukiarowitz, 1971 as cited in Quinton and Rutter, 1988). Quinton and Rutter (1988) noted that the vulnerabilities deriving from exposure to poor parenting can lead to them being abusive (e.g. depression is known to be associated with abuse). Widom (1989) emphasized that the immediate consequences of child abuse are physical injuries or emotional trauma but that the emotional and developmental scars may persist thus leading to the likelihood of inter-generational transmission of abuse. McCall Shields (1986, as cited in Widom, 1989) highlighted the context of violence in culture. Accordingly the approval of such behaviors legitimizes and reinforces the use of violence (Gil, 1973; Huggius Straus, 1980; Steinmetz, 1977; as cited in Widom, 1989) which in turn instigates the high degree of acceptance of violence in culture (R.A. Stark McEvoy, 1970 as cited in Widom, 1989). It is therefore not too difficult to deduce that learning to become violent through normal childrearing experiences might be transmitted from generation to generation (Goldstein, 1986; as cited in Widom, 1989). The social learning of a child and the witnessing/victims of physical and emotional aggression become a model for the child that violence is appropriate in the home (Bandua, 1973; Feshbach, 1980; as cited in Widom, 1989). Straus et al. (1980, as cited in Widom, 1989) suggest that each generation of abusive parents learns to be violent by being a participant in a violent home. Other evidence suggests that abuse leads to aggressive behavior, depression, withdrawal and self-punishing behavior all of which lead to abusive behavior which would suggest that the cycle of abuse can be and is transmitted. It is also suggested that abuse may lead to becoming an abusive parent, a delinquent, or a violent criminal (Widom, 1989). McCord (1983) did a study on abused, neglected, rejected, and loved boys. She found that 45% of the abused and neglected boys ended up being convicted for serious crimes, becoming alcoholics, suffering a mental illness, and/or died unusually young. Their parents were found to have been similar. Other researchers Rocklin and Lavetts (1987) research has demonstrated that identity formation (process by which a child incorporates aspects of a significant other) adds to inter-generational transmission. This is because they form these identifications as a coping mechanism rather than actual identity. However, the identification can persist and is often seen to be used later in life. Conclusion It is clear that being abused puts people at risk of being abusive towards their offspring but it is not the only factor and the path is not direct. There are many protective factors that buffer the adverse effects of abuse, which often breaks the cycle of abuse. The methodological limitations of most experiments (and lack of control measures) have lead to misleading representations of the statistics, and the inter-generational transmission of false facts (Widom, 1989). However the persistent acceptance of the inter-generational theory seems to have undermined many studies as well. The risk factors and society in which a child learns from seems to cause abuse and the transmission from generation to generation. In conclusion abuse is not necessarily transmitted from generation to generation, because there are many protective factors and the path is not direct. The past and present influence the likelihood of abused children becoming abusive parents, not just the possibility of the int er-generational abuse occurring.

The Popularity Of Air Travel Tourism Essay

The Popularity Of Air Travel Tourism Essay The Wright brothers penned their names down in history when they built the first airplane which flew for 12 seconds. Thirteen years later, in 1936; the first passenger aircraft was produced with a capacity of 21 passengers. Since then, commercial flying has become a reality. However, it was a harsh reality because only an elite group of rich people had access to this luxurious life. In 1971, the first low budget airline, American company Southwest was launched. With the introduction of budget airlines into the market, flying became available to people of every class in society. The demand for air travel skyrocketed and the industry flourished. Thus, it is safe to say that rather than causing harm to the environment by contributing to global warming, the industry brings huge benefits in economical and social aspects and its presence is very much needed and welcomed in the travel sector. Throughout this essay, the term airline industry will be more commonly used than the term budget airlines as low cost airlines only represent a small fraction of the airline industry, not the whole industry. By looking at the bigger picture of the entire aviation industry, the impacts of the industry can be evaluated at a larger scale. Therefore, the overall impact of airlines on the environment and its benefits will be discussed rather than the effects of budget airlines alone. This essay will also focus on the airborne environment which comes more in contact with airline industry. Beginning with the industrial revolution, air transport has gained popularity because it saves international travel time as transportation becomes a basic necessity. As a result, environmentalists argue that the airline industry no doubt highly contributes to carbon dioxide emission into the atmosphere as one of the fastest-growing sectors given the extra boost from budget airlines. The Environmental Protection Agency shows that in 1997, the U.S. aviation emitted carbon dioxide which was roughly comparable to the carbon emissions of certain industrialised countries (General Accounting Office 2000). Carbon dioxide gas is emitted as a by product of the burning of aviation fuel. As the main greenhouse gas, excessive amount of emissions cause global warming to rise at an alarming state. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicts the worldwide temperature to increase from 34.7 to 40.1 degrees between 1990 and 2100 (Bowe, Hartley OConnor 2004). The increase in Earths te mperature brings about a chain of events, such as ice sheets and glaciers thawing, sparking a rise in sea levels and successive coastal flooding. In addition, the occurrence of tropical infectious diseases might increase in moderate climates. On the other hand, it is affirmed by the International Air Transport Association (IATA) that the carbon dioxide vented by aircrafts actually only rationalise for a small 3.5 percent of the worldwide emission, even less by the budget carriers. This contrasts with 41 percent for other industrial sources and 23 percent for other transportation sources (General Accounting Office 2000). Moreover, aircraft experts are taking on the responsibility to minimise the negative impacts of aeroplanes. Giovanni Bisignani, director general of the IATA, claims commercial air travel has made much bigger steps in its environmental impact reduction than any other form of transport (Wastnage,J 2007), by using cleaner aircrafts, new fuels and introducing more sustai nable technologies. Thus, the industry cannot be solely accountable for global warming. On the contrary, airlines pose huge positive implications on the travel industry and economy as a whole. Low cost carriers pilot the industry to act as a catalyst for employment in other sectors such as tourism. A total of 7.7 million direct occupations in global tourism and 6.0 million indirect professions in sectors providing to tourism are estimated to be sustained by the spending of international tourists reaching by air, amounting to about USD 90 billion a year to global Gross Domestic Product (GDP) based on the Air Transport Action Groups (ATAG) report in 2008. Just as air travel is a vital component of tourism, tourism is in turn essential for economic growth. For example, in Africa, 25% of all tourism careers, an estimated 1.5 million occupations are supported by overseas visitors arriving via air (ATAG 2008). Giovanni Bisignani states in 2005 that tourism directly accounts for up to 50% of GDP in Pacific Air Travel Association (PATA) countries, and in Maldives, the sector ac counts for 80% of the economy. Hence, the sector holds a vital role in facilitating the growth of travel and tourism which are key factors in the increasingly globalised world economy. From a different perspective, this essay also takes into consideration a key group of stakeholder in the travel industry, the tourists themselves. Based on ATAGs 2008 report, travel and tourism provide substantial consumer welfare and social benefits. The existence of the air transport industry itself is a manifestation of consumer welfare where the demand to travel globally using a safe and fast mode of transportation is met. Looking beyond that, with budget airlines leading the way in making international travel readily accessible via cheaper tickets, a broader choice of holiday destinations are made available. As local standards of living improve, international air travel from India, China and other surfacing markets is raising swiftly (ATAG 2008). This means that tourists are no longer limited to regional holiday destinations. Travelling halfway around the globe becomes more common now than ever before. This provides freedom to travel and it facilitates the exchange of cultural a nd learning experiences. By being exposed to different cultures while abroad, many experiences are broadened while the understanding of other cultures increases. Both of these result in the improvement of quality of life and aid in better international integration. Moreover, the expansion of multicultural societies is supported when airlines, especially budget airlines provide an affordable mean for immigrants to visit their friends and family back home and vice versa. For that reason, inexpensive flights would ensure a raise in the quality of life. As a whole, while budget airlines and airlines do contribute to many environmental issues, the percentage to involvement is relatively small and according to Philip Murray Condit, former CEO of Boeing, it is the most environmentally friendly way to travel. Comparatively, the airline sector provides jobs for millions resulting in the rise of global economy. Socially, airlines induce the popularity of international travel and enhance cultural knowledge in order to foster better intergovernmental ties. Overall, budget airlines as part of the industry plays an active role in the society, generating profitable gains for everyone while planning ahead to reduce its negative impacts. Bottom line, the airline industry, not forgetting the budget airlines are meant to stay for years to come. (1111 words)

Welfare For Children of Illegal Immigrants Essay -- Politics Political

Welfare For Children of Illegal Immigrants The United States is in the midst of a major debate over immigrants and their place in our economic and political life. As during other times in our history, immigrants, are being blamed for causing or contributing to the social, economic and political ills of our society. Politicians from both major parties, at both the national and state levels, are promoting a range of punitive legislative proposals that single out immigrants for adverse treatment by the government. Many violate basic civil liberties principles. Based on "The Bill of Rights", foreigners do not have the right to enter the United States, but once here, immigrants are entitled to certain broad constitutional protections. In due process, immigrants have the right to be treated fairly, whether in a deportation hearing or a criminal court proceeding applies to every person within The United States borders. And Equal Protection prohibits discrimination based on race or national origin. An alien's rights to free speech and religious freedom are protected under the First Amendment. The Refugee Act of 1980 gives certain aliens the right to political asylum in the U.S. New immigrants to our country are not a scourge as some politicians claim. In fact, they can help solve many of our economic and social problems. Therefore when a child is born of illegal parents, the child should not be refused welfare. In other words, the child should not be treated as a second class citizen. In fact since it was born in the United States, he or she is to be considered a United States citizen because that is exactly what he or she is. Although it is believed that welfare receipt as a child has a negative effect on the earnings ... ...Uest. March 1998 Waldman, Amy. "Giuliana Oppose Biill To Deny Benefits To New Immigrants" New YorkTimes12 Aug. 1997, late ed.: B3.New York Times Ondisc.CD-Rom.UMI-ProQUest.March.1998 Federal Action Alert: Urge President Clinton to Veto Welfare Legislation that Harms Children. Online. Yahoo. Internet. 10 Mar. 1998. Immigrants' Rights. American Civil Liberties Union Freedom Network. Online. America Online. Internet. 10 Mar. 1998. Available ftp://iaehv.nl/users/hverbak/alert.htm Welfare Reform: CDF Summarize Conference Bill. Online. Yahoo. Internet. 10 Mar. 1998. Available ftp://libertynet.org/~edcivic/welfcdf.html Why Congress Must Reform Welfare. Heritage. Online. Yahoo. Internet. 10 Mar. 1998 Available ftp://nationalsecurity.org/heritage/library/categories/healthwel/bg1063.htm child's portion of welfare benefits as well. But the details would

Steps Towards An Ecosociety: Dealing With Air Pollution Essay -- essay

Steps Towards an Ecosociety: Dealing with Air Pollution This essay identifies and explains the problem of pollution facing humanity today. It will also propose one of the first ideas which could more effectively limit air pollution, Emission Credit Trading. This can be seen as one of the first steps in the development of an ecosociety. The notion of a viable ecosociety has created considerable problems in terms of deciding the most effective and efficient policies to be implemented. Air pollution has become one of the most serious environmental problems here at home, and throughout the rest of the world. Air pollution is also perhaps one of the more politically sensitive problems because of the numerous economic, environmental and health implications involved. A key step in the policy-making process is to define the problem to be remedied. If we can not understand the problem, how are we to know what needs to be fixed. Unfortunately, implementing policies on air pollution has the politically undesirable effect of having extensive economic consequences on all sectors of the economy. Therefore, those policies which lead to the development of an ecosociety must be aimed at having the greatest environmental impact while creating minimal economic distortions. For the purpose of this essay, pollution shall be identified as follows "...the deliberate or accidental introduction to the environment of contaminants, in the form of either wastes or products " (Bryner, 10). This essay will deal with the problem of air pollution. Air pollutants come from heavy industry, fumes from automobiles, jet planes and the like. When speaking of the automobile alone "...each gallon of gas burned releases 22 pounds of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere...the car is the single largest contributor to global warming " (Rifkin 179). Although the majority of the problem areas are in the developing world, these areas can affect the entire world. The atmosphere is not confined to borders like the land. Pollution spreads beyond the borders of any country, and as such, no one region can solve the problem alone. In some developing nations, there are areas that people and animals cannot live in for extended periods of time. One visitor to the Romanian 'black town' of Cops Mica noted that "the trees... ...eved, and the initial steps toward the ecosociety taken. Obviously this is not the ideal, having to put a price on the air we breath so as to ensure it's quality, but unfortunately it is the most viable option considering the social system in which we all live. Works Cited 1. Arnopoulos, P. Political Dimensions of an Information Society: A General Overview. Montreal: Gamma, 1982. 2. Bryner, G. ed. Global Warming and the Challenge of International Cooperation: An Interdisciplinary Assessment. Provo UT: Bringham Young University Press, 1992. 3. Gore, A. Biotechnology: Implications for Public Policy. Washington DC. : Brookings Institution, 1985. 4. Keller, E. Environmental Geology. Columbus: CE Merrill Publishing Co., 1985. 5. Mitchell, B. Canadian Resource Policies: Problems and Prospects. Toronto: Methuen, 1981. 6. Rifkin, E. Proteases and Biological Control. New York: Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory, 1975. 7. Saunders, DA Reintegrating Fragmented Landscapes: Towards Sustainable Production and Nature Conservation. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1993. 8. Vig, N and Kraft, M. Environmental Policy in the 1990's. Washington DC: C.Q. Press, 1990.

Digital Communication

Joshua Feliciano – 110445 Mr. Basile IB ITGS – 11 4. 27. 2010 Digital Communication in the 21st century Digital communication can be defined as an electronic transmission of information that has been encoded digitally. This specifically means that digital communication is data communication of information that is converted from text to code digitally. Digital communication can also be effective communication dealing with web, multimedia, video or graphics, and digital media. Some forms of digital communication can be texting, IM, e-mail, podcasting etc. Digital communication plays an important part in today's daily life in many different perspectives. In today's age, most people find digital communication a lot more easier and teachers and professors find it a bit more comprehensive. Today’s companies and organizations, use different types of media to reach and retain their audience. Digital communication helps jobs and businesses communicate a lot faster through e-mail, multimedia, texting, power point, presentations etc. As for students in any school or college, all these digital communication advantages also help and make it a lot more accessible. Throughout the decades, technology has improved drastically and gets more highly skilled as time goes on. In the past there was no such thing as digital communication. All communication was through hand written letters, phone calls, or people would just have to go visit whoever it is in person. Digital communication has made a huge change and difference in today's age. Its more comprehended and explanatory. In today's society a lot more can be accomplished with the digital communication and technology that exists today. Some of these digital communications can be text messaging, video or graphics, multimedia, podcasting, and digital media. Back then in about the 1990's, there was no such thing as any of these digital communications and advantages. Video or graphics and multimedia may have been in useable but, it definitely wasn't as advanced, updated, or even in good picture quality as today's technology and digital communication. This is significant in a couple of different ways. Not only is everything faster, and looks nicer but, all the improved technology saves every individual a lot of time in their life. With all the development and improved technology, digital communication has really made a difference for people in today's age. Digital communication contains many advantages and disadvantages. Some being good and others being bad. Advantages of digital communication can be that it is faster and easier, no paper is wasted, messages can be stored in the device for longer times without being damaged unlike paper files that easily get damages, it can be done over large distances through internet and other things, it is comparatively cheaper and the work which requires a lot of people can be done simply by one person as folders and other such facilities can be maintained, and it provides facilities like video conferencing which save a lot of time, money and effort. Digital communication also contains many disadvantages which can be that it is unreliable as the messages cannot be recognised by signatures, sometimes the quickness of digital communication is harmful as messages can be sent with the click of a mouse, it has completely ignored the human touch in which a personal touch cannot be established because all the computers will have the same font, and greater bandwidth. In conclusion, digital communication can be defined as the ability to create communications in different media, which can be its websites, video, audio, text, or animated multimedia. It's important in today's society because it's much faster and more understanding other than having to deal with letters that you can't comprehend. In today's age, digital communication can be more visible and more fun with the advancement of video or graphics, multimedia, podcasting text messaging, e-mail etc. This is significant because everything is much faster and more advanced. Overall digital communication had its advantages and disadvantages some being good and some being bad which in the end was still a very successful improvement of today's technology. Work Cited http://www. adobe. com/education/presentation/digital_communication/ http://www. macromediastudiomx. biz/uk/education/solutions/pdfs/dc_for_all_students. pdf http://www. answerbag. com/q_view/31169

Effect of enzymes on reactions Essay

Effect of enzymes on reactions Introduction            The function of any enzyme largely depends on the arrangement of its amino acids. The shape of an enzyme is so important such that any alteration or change in its amino acid sequence can have a huge effect on its function. An alteration to the amino acids in an enzyme does not only alter it shape but also its functionality. During a reaction, the whole enzyme does not take part but rather a small part known as the active site. The shape and appearance of the active site in any enzyme is determined by its three dimensional structure. The active site of an enzyme houses the shape of the substrate that needs to be changed during the reaction. This means that enzymes and substrates work like a lock and key. Since a specific key can only open a specific lock, this is explains why enzymes are specific in their reactions. How enzymes catalyze reactions            As noted earlier, enzymes serve as catalysts that speed up the rate at which biochemical reactions take place. They mainly work by offering a substitute pathway for reactions. Compared to other catalysts, the pathway provided by enzymes reduces activation energy. The same with all other catalysts, enzymes participate in reactions and this is the main way through which they offer a substitute reaction pathway. However, it is worthy noting that enzymes do not undergo any permanent changes during a reaction but remain intact. There main role in a reaction is to increase the rate but not the position of the reaction equilibrium (Cornish-Bowden 47). Unlike chemicals that catalyze a number of reactions, enzymes are usually very selective and can only catalyze precise reactions. This characteristic can be attributed to the shape of molecules that make up enzymes. Majority of enzymes are made up of a protein and non protein known as the cofactor. In most cases, the protein s found in the enzymes are globular. Any change in temperature and pH disrupts the inter-molecular and intra-molecular bonds that hold the proteins together in their tertiary and secondary structures. This means that catalytic ability of an enzyme is temperature and pH sensitive.            For any molecules to react, they must come into contact with one another. In other words, they must collide with enough energy and in the correct direction. Sufficient energy is important during a reaction because it helps the molecules overcome the energy barrier to the reaction. This type of energy is known as activation energy. During a reaction, the active side of an enzyme attaches itself to one of the reacting molecules known as the substrate. A reaction catalyzed by an enzyme takes a different route compared to that catalyzed by other catalysts. The coming together of an enzyme and a substrate results in a reaction intermediate. Enzyme substrate Enzyme-substrate complex            The best experiment that can be used to validate the claim that enzymes do in fact catalyze reactions is looking at how enzymes help human beings digest food. There are different types of foods that are consumed by human beings. Some of the most common foods consumed by people are the two types of sugars namely disaccharides and monosaccharaides. These two sugars are derived from foods like fruits which also contain fructose and glucose. All monosaccharides derived from the foods that we eat is absorbed directly and transported to different cells in the body (Cornish-Bowden 96). Unlike monosaccharides, disaccharides need to be broken down into their monosaccharide form before they can be absorbed into the body. In the absence of a catalyst, the rate at which the absorption of monosaccharide galactose and glucose take place is very slow. Since human bodies require a lot of energy to function properly, it is important that the absorption process is quickened through the use of an enzyme. The main enzyme that is produced by human bodies to quicken the absorption process is known as a lactase. The experiment would involve the following steps. This experiment can be represented using the following diagram. Fill a tube with 20 ml of a lactose solution. Fill another tube with 20 ml of lactose solution and 2 ml of lactase solution. Shake the tube to ensure that the two solutions mix. Give the experiment 5 minutes for the lactose to breakdown into galactose and glucose. Use a test strip to monitor the process. Originally, the strip is usually colored aqua. If it turns brown, olive or green, it is an indication that glucose is present. Compare the results from the two tubes.            If the color of the test strip turns brown, olive or green, this is an indication that glucose is present. This means that reaction in the tube with lactase was catalyzed resulting in the production of glucose. The reaction in the other tube was slow because there was no catalyst to quicken the reaction. The result from this experiment indicates that indeed enzymes can play a big role in catalyzing reactions. References Cornish-Bowden, Athel. Fundamentals of Enzyme Kinetics. (3rd edition), Portland Press, 2004. Print. Source document